Citizenship by descent—and what the shortcut leaves out.

Portugal recognizes parentage-based routes and its May 2026 reform extends a route to great-grandchildren of an original Portuguese citizen, subject to the amended law and implementing procedure.

• The family link and civil-status record chain must establish the qualifying Portuguese ancestor.
• The exact route differs for a Portuguese parent, grandparent, or great-grandparent and may require additional ties or declarations.

Current-law note: The 2026 reform is new and the Government stated that several provisions still required complementary regulation. Applicants should use the updated profile guide for their precise generation and filing date.

A person born abroad is automatically Irish when a parent was an Irish citizen born on the island of Ireland; specified people with an Irish-born grandparent or an Irish-citizen parent born abroad can become citizens through Foreign Birth Registration.

• The qualifying parent must have been an Irish citizen at the time of birth.
• Foreign Birth Registration requires the official civil-status records linking the applicant to the qualifying parent or grandparent.
• Citizenship through Foreign Birth Registration begins when the person is entered on the register, not retroactively for every downstream birth.

A person born outside Australia may qualify when a parent was an Australian citizen at the time of the person's birth.

• The applicant must have been born outside Australia.
• The qualifying person must have been the applicant's parent and an Australian citizen when the applicant was born.
• Applicants aged 18 or over must satisfy the good-character requirement.

Italy still recognizes citizenship through an Italian parent, but the 2025 reform restricts automatic recognition for many people born abroad who already hold another citizenship and makes the listed statutory exceptions decisive.

• The applicant must prove the complete civil-status chain from the Italian ancestor and that citizenship was transmitted under the law in force at each event.
• For a person born abroad who holds another citizenship, Article 3-bis exceptions introduced in 2025 now control whether automatic acquisition is recognized.
• Historic naturalisation, renunciation, maternal-line timing, minority, and residence facts can change the result.

Current-law note: Do not rely on pre-28 March 2025 generational summaries. The Foreign Ministry's current guidance and the competent consulate must be checked against the filing date and family history.

Portugal's ordinary residence route has different minimum periods by nationality, with a transition for applications pending before the May 2026 reform.

Reviewed scope: Ordinary residence-based naturalisation under the reform effective 19 May 2026; not a complete survey of descent or family routes. Selected requirements, not a complete eligibility checklist.

• EU and Portuguese-speaking-country nationals: Seven years of legal residence for nationals of EU member states or countries with Portuguese as an official language.
• Other nationalities: Ten years of legal residence for nationals of other states; this is an eligibility period, not a processing estimate.
• Civic knowledge and other conditions: The reform adds cultural and civic knowledge, a democratic-rule-of-law declaration, specified criminal and sanctions checks, and self-support requirements.
• Exact language standard: This reform notice does not establish the current accepted language certificates or a CEFR level. Those details remain unverified in this pilot.
• Application date matters: The notice applies the new rules to applications after entry into force; pending cases retain the previous law. It also flags implementing rules needed for practical operation.

Residence

Seven years of legal residence for nationals of EU member states or countries with Portuguese as an official language. Ten years of legal residence for nationals of other states; this is an eligibility period, not a processing estimate.

Language

This reform notice does not establish the current accepted language certificates or a CEFR level. Those details remain unverified in this pilot.

Current-law note: The notice applies the new rules to applications after entry into force; pending cases retain the previous law. It also flags implementing rules needed for practical operation. This review does not establish whether every implementing procedure is now available. Check the competent nationality service before filing. Descent, marriage, statelessness and child-specific routes are not interchangeable with this ordinary adult route.

Germany's federal naturalisation guide combines lawful residence, B1 German or accepted proof, civic knowledge and qualifying residence status.

Reviewed scope: Ordinary naturalisation as described by the federal government; personal exceptions require the responsible local authority. Selected requirements, not a complete eligibility checklist.

• Residence and status: The federal guide states more than five years of lawful residence plus a permanent right or qualifying permit. A study permit alone is not sufficient.
• German language: B1 oral and written German, or accepted German school, vocational or university proof.
• Civic knowledge: The naturalisation or Life in Germany test normally proves civic knowledge; specified German qualifications can replace it.
• Other conditions: The guide also requires self-support, criminal-record disclosure and commitments to the constitutional order and Germany's historical responsibility.
• Keeping another nationality: German law allows a naturalised person to retain prior nationality. The other country's law must be checked separately.
• Where to apply: Apply to the competent local naturalisation authority and check its document requirements before filing.

Residence

The federal guide states more than five years of lawful residence plus a permanent right or qualifying permit. A study permit alone is not sufficient.

Language

B1 oral and written German, or accepted German school, vocational or university proof.

Current-law note: Family co-naturalisation and statutory exceptions can change the result. This page does not decide individual eligibility or predict processing time.

Ireland's ordinary adult naturalisation route uses reckonable residence, including a continuous final year, rather than simply time since arrival.

Reviewed scope: Ordinary adult residence-based naturalisation; spouse, refugee, descent and minor routes need separate checks. Selected requirements, not a complete eligibility checklist.

• Five years within nine: Normally five years of reckonable legal residence in the last nine, including the continuous year immediately before applying.
• Final-year absences: The guide allows 70 days away in the final year, with up to 30 more only for exceptional circumstances accepted by the Minister.
• Reckonable permission: Stamp 2/2A student periods normally do not count, but a discretionary exception covers certain dependent young adults who arrived legally as children. Gaps in permission do not count.
• Language level: No numeric language level is established by this pilot. Do not treat a missing level as a verified exemption.
• Prepare the application: Check immigration-permission dates and provide identity and residence evidence for the required years through the official citizenship process.

Residence

Normally five years of reckonable legal residence in the last nine, including the continuous year immediately before applying.

Language

No numeric language level is established by this pilot. Do not treat a missing level as a verified exemption.

Current-law note: Reckonable residence and proof of residence are different checks. This is not an automatic entitlement or a processing-time estimate.

Canada's adult citizenship route counts physical presence and qualifying status. Language proof uses CLB/NCLC, not an assumed European-language equivalent.

Reviewed scope: Adult permanent-resident citizenship grant; child, descent and exceptional routes are separate. Selected requirements, not a complete eligibility checklist.

• Physical presence: At least 1,095 days within the five years before signing, including at least 730 days as a permanent resident.
• Earlier residence credit: Eligible temporary-resident or protected-person days count at half a day, capped at 365 credited days within the eligibility window.
• English or French: Applicants aged 18–54 need CLB/NCLC 4 in speaking and listening, subject to the official waiver rules.
• Test and oath: Adults aged 18–54 must pass the citizenship test; adults take the oath, subject to available waivers.
• Tax filing and eligibility checks: If required under tax law, file returns for at least three of the preceding five years. Permanent-resident status and prohibitions must also be checked.

Residence

At least 1,095 days within the five years before signing, including at least 730 days as a permanent resident.

Language

Applicants aged 18–54 need CLB/NCLC 4 in speaking and listening, subject to the official waiver rules.

Current-law note: Use IRCC's presence calculation and application instructions. Qualifying to apply does not guarantee approval; do not translate CLB/NCLC into CEFR without an authoritative mapping.

Ordinary adult conferral combines lawful residence, a final permanent-residence period, absence limits and a citizenship test. Approval and the citizenship pledge remain separate steps.

Reviewed scope: General adult migrant conferral, principally applicants aged 18–59; separate age, disability, defence and special-residence provisions are not substitute ordinary routes. Selected requirements, not a complete eligibility checklist.

• Four-year residence baseline: Normally, live in Australia lawfully for the four years immediately before applying, including the final 12 months as a permanent resident. These are qualifying residence requirements, not a four-year processing promise.
• Absences and New Zealand status: Ordinary absences must total no more than 12 months in the four years, including no more than 90 days in the final year. New Zealand Special Category Visa holders can count as permanent residents for citizenship; the form specifies their qualifying dates and separate subclass 189 backdating rules.
• Status, character and continuing connection: Permanent-resident status is required at application and decision. Applicants must be of good character and likely to live in Australia or retain a close, continuing connection. Ordinary applicants generally must be in Australia for approval; statutory exceptions are limited.
• English and citizenship knowledge: The general route requires basic English and knowledge of Australia and citizenship responsibilities, demonstrated through successful completion of the approved citizenship test. Separate provisions cover applicants aged 60 or over and specified impairments or incapacity. No CEFR equivalence is established here.
• Approval and pledge: Eligibility does not guarantee approval. Under the ordinary route, citizenship begins after approval and the required pledge; qualifying incapacity and other statutory exceptions have different pledge rules.
• Other citizenship may be retained: Australia permits its citizens to hold another citizenship when the other country's law allows it. Australian permission does not establish retention under that other law.

Current-law note: Descent, adoption, resumption, defence service, special-residence and detailed ministerial-discretion cases require their own assessment. The ordinary residence figure must not replace their separate rules. This is general legal information, not an eligibility decision or a processing-time guarantee. Home Affairs must assess identity, character, security and other statutory refusal grounds.

French naturalisation by decree normally requires five years of residence. Language evidence, civic examination and integration are separate conditions.

Reviewed scope: Adult naturalisation by decree for an applicant living in France; not nationality by marriage, descent or a decision on an exemption. Selected requirements, not a complete eligibility checklist.

• Ordinary residence period: Five years generally. Defined cases have a two-year period or no minimum; the applicant's main professional and family interests must be in France at the decree.
• French language: The current proof guide requires B2 French, oral and written. Accepted qualifications/tests, accommodations and exemptions must be checked for the applicant's situation.
• Civics and integration: Civic examination, assimilation, professional integration and conduct are assessed separately from the language certificate.
• Application and decision: Follow the official step-by-step service for evidence, submission, interview and the decree. Meeting a residence period does not guarantee naturalisation.

Residence

Five years generally. Defined cases have a two-year period or no minimum; the applicant's main professional and family interests must be in France at the decree.

Language

The current proof guide requires B2 French, oral and written. Accepted qualifications/tests, accommodations and exemptions must be checked for the applicant's situation.

Current-law note: Different routes and exemptions have separate evidence requirements. A French passport is a later document, not the naturalisation application itself.

Spain's ordinary nationality-by-residence route requires ten years of legal, continuous residence immediately before applying. Reduced periods, integration evidence and renunciation exceptions depend on the applicant's cohort.

Reviewed scope: Ordinary adult nationality by residence; reduced statutory cohorts are distinguished from the baseline, and descent, option and exceptional grants are not fully covered. Selected requirements, not a complete eligibility checklist.

• Ordinary legal residence: The baseline is ten years of legal, continuous residence immediately before the application. It is not a physical-presence day total or a processing estimate.
• Reduced periods are cohort-specific: Recognised refugees need five years. Two years applies to nationals by origin of Ibero-American countries, Andorra, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea or Portugal, and Sephardic applicants. Article 22(2) defines separate one-year birth, option, guardianship and family cohorts.
• Conduct and grant decision: Good civic conduct and sufficient integration must be proved. The Justice Minister may refuse for reasoned public-order or national-interest grounds.
• Spanish language and civic knowledge: Ordinarily, applicants must pass DELE Spanish at CEFR A2 or higher and the CCSE constitutional and sociocultural test. Listed nationality exemptions, a prior qualifying DELE diploma and specified official educational certificates can replace the language examination; the two-year residence cohort is not identical to the DELE-exempt cohort.
• Waivers and accessible examinations: Disability accommodations are available. Applicants unable to read or write or with learning difficulties may request a waiver before applying; it is not automatic. Those schooled in Spain who completed compulsory secondary education can submit the relevant proof with the nationality application without a prior waiver request.
• Renunciation and treaty exceptions: A renunciation declaration is generally required. Exceptions cover people from Ibero-American countries, Andorra, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea and Portugal, Sephardic people originating from Spain, and French citizens under the bilateral convention. The French exception does not reduce the residence period; the other nationality's law must also be checked.
• Oath and registration: The required oath or promise, applicable nationality declaration and Civil Registry registration complete acquisition. A grant lapses if the required appearance is not made within 180 days after notification.
• Official application: The Justice Ministry's electronic service accepts nationality-by-residence applications and supporting documents, with a separate service for requests to waive the Cervantes tests.

Residence

The baseline is ten years of legal, continuous residence immediately before the application. It is not a physical-presence day total or a processing estimate.

Language

Ordinarily, applicants must pass DELE Spanish at CEFR A2 or higher and the CCSE constitutional and sociocultural test. Listed nationality exemptions, a prior qualifying DELE diploma and specified official educational certificates can replace the language examination; the two-year residence cohort is not identical to the DELE-exempt cohort.

Current-law note: No general safe absence allowance is established by this review. Residence continuity, the exact reduced-period category and documentary proof require individual review. Renunciation declarations do not determine another country's loss rules. This is an acquisition-route summary, not a complete account of later nationality-retention duties or a promise of approval.

The UAE describes a narrow nomination framework for specified investors, doctors, specialists, inventors, scientists, intellectuals, artists and exceptional talents. It is not an ordinary citizenship application route open to a US citizen merely because they want a second passport.

• The candidate must fall within a listed exceptional category and satisfy that category's professional, investment, recommendation or recognition conditions.
• Acquisition is only through nomination by rulers' and crown princes' courts, executive councils, or the Cabinet based on federal-entity nominations.
• An eligible candidate must take the oath, comply with UAE law and notify the government of another citizenship's acquisition or loss.

Current-law note: The official framework says a naturalised citizen may retain the original nationality, but nomination remains exceptional and citizenship may be withdrawn if its conditions are breached.